Pizza: A Brief Historical Overview and American Culture Essay

2005 will mark the 100-year anniversary of the first pizzeria in America. Americans eat approximately 100 acres of pizza each day, which is about 350 slices per second. According to an American Dairy Association random sampling survey, pizza is America’s fourth most craved food behind cheese, chocolate, and ice cream. American’s obviously love pizza; we have even designated the month of October as National Pizza Month. But whether you bake your pizza in your kitchen oven, in a wood-burning stove, eat it in a restaurant, or choose delivery, there is no denying this phenomenon has become as American as apple pie. Although we love our modern-day version pizza pie, where did it all begin? In my research, I found several opinions of the origin, but there is a consensus that this baked goodness is over one thousand years old. Ed Behr of Art of Eating newsletter states, â€Å"The written record of the word pizza, in the sense of foccacia, goes back to the Codex Cajetanus of the year 997.† And there is speculation that even Plato spoke of pizza in his Republic: â€Å"They will provide from their barley and flour from their wheat and kneading and cook these†¦ they (the cakes) will also have relishes – salt†¦ and of olives and cheese; and onions and greens.† Although this is probably not the case, it is interesting to imagine one of our great minds of history philosophizing about something so miniscule. Behr continues to suggest that â€Å"pizza is an alternation of the Greek word pitta, which was int...

William McKinley Essay -- essays research papers

William McKinley 25th President of the United States. William McKinley was born on January 29, 1843 in Niles, Ohio, a town of about 300 people. He was the 7th child born to William and Nancy Alison McKinley His family moved to Poland, Ohio when he was nine years old so that the children could go to a private school called the Poland Academy. In school William liked to read, debate, and he was the president of the school’s first debate club. When he was 16 he went to Allegheny College in Meadville, Pennsylvania, for a while before he got sick and had to return home .he did not go back to Meadville, because the family had no money. Instead, he worked as a postal clerk for awhile. When the Civil War started on April 12, 1861, he taught at Kerr School near Poland, Ohio. He and a cousin, Will Osbourne enlisted as privates in the 23rd regiment, Ohio Volunteer Infantry, which was under the command of Rutherford B. Hayes, the future U.S. president, Because of this acts of bravery, he was promoted to the rank of second lieutenant. By the time the war was over he had attained the rank of brevet major. William went back to Poland, Ohio where he studied law with Judge Charles Glidden. In 1866 he went to law school in Albany, New York, but he did not graduate. In 1867 he was admitted to the bar in Warren, Ohio. He moved to Canton, Ohio where two of his sisters were schoolteachers and he got a job working for Judge George Belden. Belden was so busy with cases that he offered one to McKinley. McKinley won the case and so impressed the judge that he was paid $25.00 for the case and was given a job. Later, McKinley opened his own law office and got into the politics of the Republican Party. He was elected Prosecuting Attorney of Stark County in 1869. While also doing business at a local bank where he met Ida Saxton, she was the daughter of his boss, and was also the Belle of Canton. They got married in January, 1871 and their first daughter, Katherine, was born on Christmas day. Their second child, Ida, was born in 1873 and died at the age of 4 Â ½ months. That same year, Mrs. McKinley’s mother also died. Two years later, their first daughter, Katie, died of typhoid fever. Mrs. McKinley got sick with depression, phlebitis, and epilepsy, which left her needing constant care. Mr. McKinley was always concerned about her and he was known for his devotion to her. McK... ...he president was waiting for medical aid, he said to his secretary, my wife, be careful, Corte you, how you tell her-oh, be careful. He also told the aide not to let the crowd hurt the assassin. McKinley was rushed to a nearby hospital for emergency surgery. . The president was operated on but they could not find the bullet, so they closed him up and sent him to the home in hope that the president would recover. He started to improve for a couple of days but then he took a turn for the worse and died on September 14th from infection. Doctors had decided not to use Edison’s X-ray machine to find the bullet because they were not sure of what effects it might have had on the president. The president’s body first went to the Buffalo City Hall to be seen by the public for a couple of days, then to Washington D.C. for two days and finally to Canton, Ohio on September 18th where he was buried at Westlawn Cemetery. He was the third president to be assassinated: the others w ere Lincoln and Garfield. The assassin was tried, found guilty, and was electrocuted in Buffalo shortly after the shooting. McKinley’s wife, Ida, returned to Canton where a sister cared for her until her death in 1907.

Nathaniel Hawthorne :: essays research papers

NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE: THE AUTHOR AND HIS TIMES It was a brash, bustling, energetic country in which Hawthorne grew up and carved out his writing career. The covered wagons were rolling West, with signs that bravely declared "California or bust!" The first passenger railroad opened, and the trains went huffing and puffing along at the (then) incredible speed of 20 miles an hour. Jackson was elected president, throwing the conservative statesmen out of office and ushering in the age of democracy and the common man. It was an age between wars, when America, having beaten England for the second time--in the War of 1812--was flexing its adolescent muscles. Hope was in the air, and also a feeling of impatience with the imported, second-hand, European way of doing things. "Down with the past" might have been the slogan of the time. Americans sensed a fresh, creative task at hand in the building of a new country. It was a task that called for strong backs, clear eyes, and open minds. There were experiments in living going on to match the experiments in politics and technology. Starry-eyed intellectuals gathered outside Boston to thrive on a vegetarian diet at Alcott's Fruitlands. Thoreau conducted his own private experiments in a life close to nature at Walden Pond. Horace Mann planned to change the world by changing education. Where was Hawthorne while all this excitement was going on? In his bedroom in Salem, reading a book. You get the distinct feeling about this man that, so far as the great adventures of his time were concerned, he simply wasn't paying attention. Hawthorne was gazing intelligently off in another direction. Most of his generation looked expectantly toward the future. Hawthorne kept his eyes on the past. He was an introvert, almost a recluse, this native son of

Postpartum Stress Disorder Essay

The postpartum period has been defined as â€Å"a bringing forth of the period following childbirth† (Webster, 1988, p. 1055) or â€Å"occurring after childbirth or after delivery, with reference to the mother† (Doriand, 1988, p. 1343). In nursing or medical textbooks, the postpartum period is defined as â€Å"the 6-week interval between the birth of the newborn and the return of the reproductive organs to their normal non-pregnant state† (Wong & Perry, 1998, p. 480). However, Tulman and Fawcett’s (1991) found that the recovery of postpartum women’s functional status from childbirth takes at least 3 to 6 months. Webster’s Dictionary defines stress concretely as a â€Å"physical, mental, or emotional strain that disturbs one’s normal bodily functions† (Webster, 1997, p. 735). Stress is produced by stressors. Wheaton (1996) defines stressors as â€Å"conditions of threat, demands, or structural constraints that, by the very fact of their occurrence or existence, call into question the operating integrity of the organism† (p. 2). In addition, four characteristics of stressors are described: (1) threats, demands, or structural constraints; (2) a force challenging the integrity of the organism; (3) a â€Å"problem† that requires resolution; and, (4) â€Å"identity relevant† in threats in which the pressure exerted by the stressor, in part, derives its power from its potential to threaten or alter identities. Further, awareness of the damage potential of a stressor is not a necessary condition for that stressor having negative consequences; and a stressor can be defined bidirectional ly with respect to demand characteristics. That is, it is possible for both over-demand and under-demand to be stress problems (Wheaton, 1996). Accordingly, based on the above definitions of the postpartum period, stress, and stressors, postpartum stress is defined as a constraining force produced by postpartum stressors. Postpartum stressors are defined as conditions of change, demand, or structural constraint that, by the very fact of their occurrence or existence within six weeks after delivery, call into question the operating integrity of body changes, maternal role attainment, and social support. Due to its many adjustments, the postpartum period has been conceptualized as a time of vulnerability to stress for childbearing women (Too, 1997). Postpartum Period The postpartum period has been conceptualized by a variety of cultures as a time of vulnerability to stress for women (Hung and Chung, 2001). It is characterized by dramatic changes and requires mandatory adjustments that involve many difficulties and concerns, possibly leading to new demands, or structural constraints and, therefore, stress. All mothers face the multiple demands of adjusting to changes in the body, learning about the new infant, and getting support from significant others. For women going through this transition, it may be a uniquely stressful life experience. Several stressors specific to the puerperium as it exists in the literature have been identified. Those pertaining to body changes include: pain/discomfort, rest/sleep disturbances, diet, nutrition, physical restrictions, weight gain, return to prepregnancy physical shape, care of wounds, contraception, resuming sexual intercourse, discomfort of stitches, breast care, breast soreness, hemorrhoids, flabby subcutaneous tissue, and striae. Stressors pertaining to maternal role attainment include: concerns about infant crying, health, development, bathing, clothing, handling, diapering, night-time feeding, breastfeeding, conflicting expert advice, keeping the baby in an environment with a comfortable temperature, bottle feeding, appearance, safety, elimination, body weight, skin, baby’s sex, breathing, spitting up, sleeping, and cord care (Moran et al. , 1997; Too, 1997). Finally, those stressors pertaining to social support include: running the household, finances, perception of received emotional support, giving up work, finding time for personal interests and hobbies, father’s role with the baby, relationship with the husband, restriction of social life, relationship with children, and coordinating the demands of husband, housework, and children (Moran et al. , 1997). In addition, Hung and Chung (2001) shows that after childbirth women will encounter another type of stress during the postpartum period, which is characterized by dramatic changes and requires adjustment. Conditions of change, demand, or structural constraint may occur during these dramatic changes, creating many difficulties or concerns. Therefore, in addition to general stress, postpartum stress is induced after delivery during the postpartum period. Postpartum Stress Disorder Postpartum Stress Disorder (PSD) is the most serious, least common, and most highly publicized of the postpartum mood disorders: mothers with PSD have killed their infants and themselves. It is on the extreme end of the postpartum continuum of mood disorders (Nonacs, 2005) and attention to symptoms is vital for any postpartum support program. The treatment issues will not be fully discussed here because of their specialty and complexity. However, it remains a primary function of the service delivery to recognize symptoms and refer appropriately for specialized psychiatric care and management. A sensitive, direct question such as, â€Å"Some women who have a new baby have thoughts such as wishing the baby were dead or about harming the baby; has this happened to you? (Wisner, et al. , 2003, p. 44), is an essential element of postpartum evaluation and Wisner and colleagues (2003) have suggested that this question be asked of all postpartum women. PSD is a rare, severe disorder with a prevalence of one to two cases per one thousand births (Seyfried & Marcus, 2003). Symptoms are abrupt and often occur within 48 hours of delivery but can be delayed as long as two years (Rosenberg, et al, 2003). Typically, however, symptoms occur within the first three weeks, and two thirds appear within the first two weeks postpartum (Chaudron & Pies, 2003). Symptoms include mood lability, distractibility, insomnia, abnormal or obsessive thoughts, impairment in functioning, delusions, hallucinations, feelings of guilt, bizarre behavior, feelings of persecution, jealousy, grandiosity, suicidal and homicidal ideation, self-neglect, and cognitive disorganization (Wisner et al. , 2003). Women with PSD who harbor thoughts of harming their infant are more likely to act on those thoughts (Wisner et al. , 2003). Because of the severity of the illness and significant concern for the safety of both the infant and the mother, PSD is considered a psychiatric emergency and hospitalization is necessary. Etiology of PSD There has been some debate about the etiology of PSD. As noted previously, the incidence is approximately one or two women per one thousand births. This rate has remained unchanged for that last 150 years (Wisner et al. , 2003). In cross-cultural studies the rates for PSD are similar to those reported in the United States and the United Kingdom. These findings suggest a primary etiologic relationship between PSD and childbirth, rather than psychosocial factors (Wisner et al. , 2003). O’Hara (1997) has noted that women are 20 to 30 times more likely to be hospitalized for PSD within thirty days after childbirth than at any other time during the life span, leading him to speculate, with little doubt, that for women there is a specific association between childbirth and PSD. There are subgroups of women who may be more likely to develop stressful symptoms after delivery. Primaparas appear to have a higher risk for c than multiparous women (Wisner et al. , 2003). This may be the result of an undiagnosed bipolar disorder. Women with a history of bipolar disorder or PSD have a 1 in 5 risk of hospitalization following childbirth (Seyfried & Marcus, 2003). The overall pattern of symptoms described as PSD suggests the illness is on a continuum of bipolar mood disorders (Wisner et al. , 2003). The clinical presentation of PSD is often very similar to a manic episode (Seyfried & Marcus, 2003). Affective disturbances may be depressive, manic, or mixed (Chaudron & Pies, 2003). While there is no typical presentation, women often display delusions, hallucinations, and/or disorganized behavior. Delusional behavior often revolves around infants and children, and these women must be carefully assessed because thoughts of harming their children are sometimes acted upon (Chaudron & Pies, 2003). The predominant affective symptom in those postpartum women who commit infanticide, filicide, or suicide is depression rather than mania (Chaudron & Pies, 2003). In reviewing the connection between bipolarity and PSD several studies have shown evidence for a link in four areas: symptom presentation, diagnostic outcomes, family history, and recurrences in women with bipolar disorder (Chaudron & Pies, 2003). The relationship to bipolar disorder is considered quite persuasive and it has been suggested that acute onset PPP be considered bipolar disorder until proven otherwise (Wisner et al. , 2003). However bipolarity does not account for all cases of PSD and a meticulous differential diagnosis is mandatory for those women with presenting stress symptoms. A careful checking of the patient’s history for previous manic or hypomanic episodes as well as any family history of bipolar disorder is important in order to rule out bipolar disorder. Organic causes contributing to first onset PSD need to be examined and ruled out. These include: tumors, sequelae to head injury, central nervous system infections, cerebral embolism, psychomotor seizures, hepatic disturbance, electrolyte imbalances, diabetic conditions, anoxia, and toxic exposures (Seyfried & Marcus, 2003). Of special consideration in postpartum women is thyroiditis. This is relatively common in postpartum women and usually begins with a hyperthyroid phase progressing to hypothyroidism. In either phase PSD can occur (Wisner et al. , 2003). Obtaining serum calcium levels is important to rule out hypercalcemia for patients displaying PSD symptoms (Wisner et al. , 2003). Sleep loss resulting from the interaction of various causes may be a pathway to the development of PSD in susceptible women (Wisner et al. , 2003). The later stages of pregnancy and the early postpartum period are associated with high levels of sleep disturbance. This seems to be more prevalent in primiparous women than in multiparae. Historical and contemporary studies have noted that insomnia and sleep loss are significant and early symptoms of PSD. The rapid and abrupt changes of gonadal steroids after delivery and the evidence that estrogen has an effect on mood and the sleep-wake cycle (Wisner et al. , 2003) suggest an interaction between hormonal fluctuations, sleep loss, and the onset of PSD. Treatment of PSD PSD is a severe illness and should be considered a psychiatric emergency requiring hospitalization (Rosenberg et al. , 2003). The stigma attached to mental illness and especially to mothers who may harm their infants and themselves, often prevents women and their families from seeking help. PSD is often marked with periods of lucidity that can fool those close to the mother and health care professionals. Because of the complexity of the diagnosis and treatment, referral to a psychiatric specialist is required and formal treatment is beyond the scope of this program. However, it will be necessary to recognize symptoms and be cognizant of risk factors, such as history of bipolar disorder or previous PSD. Such awareness is essential, as is the readiness to offer support until adequate services can be implemented (Wisner et al. , 2003). Prevention of PSD is unclear, but early identification of a history of bipolar disorder and/or previous PSD would be an element of a comprehensive postpartum program. Prenatal education describing symptoms is an important aspect of a proactive approach to postpartum care. Part of the prenatal and postpartum educational effort will include urging women to share any bizarre thoughts and fears with their health care professionals and families. New mothers experiencing insomnia will be encouraged to seek assistance from their physicians and to engage other family members to care for the infant during nighttime feedings (Wisner et al. , 2003). As noted earlier, specific treatment is beyond the scope of this program, but a proactive approach to early identification and recognition of unusual thoughts, feelings, and experiences may help to initiate treatment and avoidance of tragic results. Conclusion During the postpartum period, women are immersed in the realities of parenting and coping with balancing their multiple roles (e. g. , wife, mother, and career woman). However, women frequently report difficulty in adjusting to the needs of the baby and other children, difficulty with housework and routines, concerns over support to cope with family needs, and concerns over weight gain and body changes. Accordingly, postpartum stress has an important role in a woman’s life and influences her health status, both physical and mental.

Online Reservation and Ordering System

Section I INTRODUCTION Clothes are the things that have the attributes of color, size, pattern and cut. They are usually comfortable to wear. Clothes are usually being shopped in malls, boutiques and tiangge. An online shopping is an electronic shopping of products that are available online through internet. Clothing is one of the basic needs for humans of all ages. They bring with them the feeling of comfort. This is also a way for you to express your personality and emotions. Thus clothing is important to human existence. Since it is the time of new millennium malls have faced the increasing needs to adapt and sustain the needs of man. By means of the internet, shoppers can now browse the available items on the web. Online shopping has been dominant in every corner of life. This could help the customers buy the product they want, when they want in the convenience of their own time. For some, shopping can be associated with their identity. Most of the middle to high class society shop online for their own convenience. One of the marketing strategies that Online Reservation and Ordering System should have is to make sure of the products availability. They also provide wider area for shoppers. Thus encouraging the customers to visit and patronize the store. The purpose of proposing this Online Reservation and Ordering System is to help Salad Dressing in gaining more income and publicity. Purpose of Project Plan This study aims to design and develop the Online Reservation and Ordering System for Salad Dressing Iloilo Branch. This would benefit the boutique since it will be one of the ways that the shop would gain profit. The proposed system will help Salad Dressing Iloilo Branch by providing: 1. Less time in purchasing an item and no need for a personal transaction. 2. Customers can now view all the available products since browsing the website would be in their own convenience. . The boutique would be more exposed to the majority of the public since the proposed system will be online. Project Scope and Objectives The project scope covers the online reservation and ordering of available items. Customers can reserve or order the products they want. They can also pay their bills online because of the accessible mode of payments which is by the use of credit cards. Customers can also browse the website and be updated on the latest products that are available in the boutique. The supervisor or the cashier will be the one who will update the product list on the website. The project team’s main objective is to develop an online reservation and ordering system for Salad Dressing. The system has a web administrator account which can access the content of the system and manage the updates of the product list on the web. Only the supervisor or the cashier can access the said account. This system was proposed to help Salad Dressing Iloilo Branch only. Other than the above mentioned are not part of . researcher study. Major Functions Online Reservation and Ordering System is a way for the customers to browse or access the items available in the boutique. This is made easy by the use of the internet. Our system would have the following functions: †¢ Browse Product Availability With the use of the system, customers can browse or search available products on the boutique. †¢ Products can be Reserved/Ordered Using this system, it would be hassle free for the customers to buy the product online since it will take less time and they can do it without personal transaction. †¢ Easy Mode of Payment The customers can pay their due amount through credit cards. †¢ Updates the Latest Trend Since this will be online the customer knows the latest products that were available. †¢ Printing of Reports Data retrieval would be more convenient and time saving. Performance Issues The store where the project team conducts the study has problems with the availability of a certain product that the customer needs for an occasion. Since the boutique is not that popular to the public because of their limited publicity. To prevent this incident, the project team proposed an Online Reservation and Ordering System. With the use of this system it would be more convenient for the customer to check on the products availability and reserve a product that he/she needs. This system will also help in their publicity as well.

Core Issues in Crime and Punishment Essay

Jimmy Boyle’s autobiography A Sense of Freedom (1977) gives a very interesting and honest insight into his life of crime and incarceration. The autobiography, written from inside prison, is according to Boyle an attempt to warn young people that there is not anything glamorous about crime and violence. It gives a full narration of his life from a very young age, with a detailed insight into his childhood, experiences of petty crime, approved schools and borstal, right through to his adult experiences of more serious crime, violence and adult prisons, including his interpretation of the Penal System. Reading this autobiography I aimed to remain detached from the author and seek to create an independent analysis of his criminality. The definition of ‘autobiography’ according to AskOxford (2010) is ‘an account of a person’s life written by that person’; this suggests that in analysing the author’s criminality throughout the book one should not forget that it is written from the author’s perspective and memory and should not be taken purely on face value. With this in mind I intend to apply criminological theories to Boyle’s autobiography with an aim to distinguish which criminological theory most effectively seeks to explain his criminality. Moreover, in doing this I expect to illuminate the criticisms involved within these theories. Crime can be defined as ‘an act or deed, which is against the law’ (Chambers 1998:145). Over the past few centuries there have been numerous theories try to explain why crime is committed and the answers to this question are still quite sceptical. I intend to consider the key principles of Rational Choice Theory and how convincing it is in explaining Boyle’s criminality. Rational Choice Theory is part of a contemporary Classical approach in explaining crime. In order to explain this theory it is important firstly to look into the Classical approach. Classicism is the eldest of these two theories that seeks to explain criminality. It emerged at a time when the naturalistic approach of the social contract theorists was challenging the previously dominant spiritualist approach to explaining crime and criminal behaviour (Burke, 2005:24). It rests on the assumption of free will and suggests that criminal activity is the result of rational choice and of the hedonistic impulses of the individual (Newburn, 2007:114). It was the two key Classical school theorists Baccaria and Bentham who in the late eighteenth century established the essential components of the Rational Actor model. It suggests that crime is the product of evil and people commit crime through choice because they are simply ‘bad’ (Newburn, 2007:114). A key principle of the classicist approach is to state the law clearly to the public and punishment should be predictable in order to create deterrence against crime. Baccaria considered that criminals owe a debt to society and proposed that punishments should be fixed strictly in proportion to the seriousness of the crime. According to Baccaria human behaviour is essentially based on the pleasure pain principle, therefore punishment should reflect that principle and all that are guilty of a particular offence should suffer the same penalty (Burke, 2005:25). Rational Choice theory derives from this same school of thought as Classicism. It emerged during the 1980s with the notion that ‘nothing works’, influenced by the Bentham and the economic utility model. Likewise to Classicism it bases its structure on simple deterrence and retribution principles and also shares the same assumptions that offenders are essentially rationally calculating actors (Newburn, 2007:280). It suggests that offenders make a cost-benefit-calculation as whether to commit the crime. If the benefit (e.g. money) out weighs the cost (e.g. prosecution if caught) then it is likely that they will take the risk and commit the offence. Becker (1968, cited in Newburn, 2007) argued that individuals will commit offences if the ‘expected utility’ of doing so is positive, and will not do so if it is negative. Cornish and Clark (1985, cited in Newburn, 2007) have had a major influence in developing Rational Choice theory. They suggest that rather than a simple choice, a sequence of choices have to be made, and that these choices are influenced by a number of social and psychological factors within the individual. Although this contemporary view still holds some of the main aspects of Classicism regarding rationality, it has moved in a new direction as it now arguably considers the psychological and sociological effects on the offender, an area that Classicism failed to consider. Rather than suggesting offenders are just ‘bad’ in its explanation of crime as Classicism does, the Rational Choice theory became the study of why people make particular decisions and behave in particular ways under certain circumstances (Newburn, 2007:281). According to Cornish and Clark (1985, cited in Newburn, 2007) crime is treated as ‘purposive’; it is never senseless. Moreover, Cornish and Clark (1985, cited in Newburn, 2007) suggest that other than material wealth, the benefits of committing su ch crime may also include excitement, prestige, fun, sexual gratification, defiance or dominance of others. It is arguable that throughout reading A Sense Of Freedom (1977) Boyle is aware of all the benefits from crime he receives, a lot of which are mentioned above. From a young age Boyle admits to the excitement experience by stealing and fighting. It is this that makes it evident that he has made rational calculations of what the benefits received will be as a result of crime, for instance stealing will gain him material wealth, reputation/status and excitement, much the same as fighting would gain him reputation and excitement. In this sense for Boyle the benefit of committing crime outweighed the cost, which explains his ongoing criminal behaviour. However, these benefits received would be an after effect of committing these crimes. What the Rational Choice theory fails to explain is why the need for committing the crime in the first place. Although Rational Choice theory does mention the psychological and sociological aspects that the offender brings with them into certain situations , it bases these aspects on calculating whether to commit the crime or not, rather than what sociological or psychological effects would contribute towards committing the crime in the first place i.e. strain, inequality, poverty, learned behaviour etc. Therefore it still does not seek to explain the individual’s social circumstances. In this sense according to Newburn (2007) it fails to take sufficient account of the structural conditions within which individual decision-making takes place (Newburn, 2007,296) Simply Rational Choice theory does not explain the reasons for committing crime in the first place. It explains the process that takes place when there is an opportunity for crime. According to Newburn (2007) it fails to explain or is unconcerned with the motivation of the offender. What it does seek to explain is the reasons why offenders such as Boyle repeatedly committed crime, such as the benefits i.e. reputation, status and material wealth. The Rational Choice Theory suggests that we would all commit crime if we thought we could get away with it, the reason we do not is because for most the cost outweighs the benefit (Newburn, 2007:296). This illuminates the question as to why everyone does not commit crime if everyone has the same rationality? According to Jones (2006) ‘the various definitions of ‘rational choice’ provided by the theory’s proponents seems to be too vague and allow for almost any form of behaviour except the most extreme pathological variety’. According to Jones (2006:417), Gibbs (1989) sums it up when he said ‘if rational behaviour is defined as simply goal-orientated behaviour, then virtually all human behaviour is rational’. According to Burke, (2005,44) one of the criticisms with Rational Choice theory is that it is accused of implying a too high degree of rationality by comparing criminal choices too closely with market-place decisions. The work of Cornish and Clark suggest ‘offenders invariably act in terms of limited or bounded form of rationality (Burke, 2005:44). In this sense offenders will not be fully aware of all the aspects involved in making the decision to commit crime nor will they have all the facts to make a wise decision. This is still considered to be a rational choice but to a different degree. Therefore, this suggests that offenders can be categorised separately from ‘law-abiding’ citizens (Burke, 2005:44). Although the Rational Choice Theory has played a large part in the Governments aim for situational crime prevention within the past forty years, with the notion that ‘nothing works’ and its concentration on removing/reducing the opportunity for crime, it seems it has not played a large part in understanding why crime is committed nor has it contributed towards developing criminological theory. Gibbons (1994, cited in Walklate, 1998:38) argues that ‘the Rational Choice theory neither constitutes a new or nor a general explanation of crime since elements of attributing the ability to make choices and decisions to criminals and criminal behaviour are present in a range of criminological perspectives’. Akers (1994 cited in Jones, 2006:416) suggests Ration Choice theory and deterrence theorists have not acknowledged their debt to Social Learning theory, which he states already allows for the adoption of rational decision-making processes in considering whether to commit crime. As it is apparent after reading Boyle’s autobiography that he has made a lot of choices to commit crime throughout his life, it is difficult to apply the Rational Choice theory to specifics as it seems to be a very vague theory, much the same a Classicism. It seems that all his decisions throughout were of a cost-benefit-calculation, however arguably, this could be said about every decision any offender makes from stealing a pen at work, vandalism to murder and more serious crime. With this in mind I am now going to consider a psychological positivist approach in explaining Boyles criminality. Instead of looking at abnormalities of the brain in an attempt to explain his criminality, although there are a number of questions that could be raised when looking at his actions in prison, which could arguably be linked to psychopathic behaviour, in this case it would be beneficial to look into learning behaviour in trying to explain his criminality, with an emphasis on Social Learnin g thoery. From a young age Boyle explains the area he was brought up in as poor and socially deprived (Boyle, 1977:21). He tells of his experiences as a young boy as looking at certain areas as more upper class and the people who live in them are ‘toffs’ which he later admits that they were not, however they had nicer clothes or shoes than himself therefore they were classed as ‘toffs’ by him and his peers. He states that his and his friend’s mother used to call then ‘half boiled toffs’ and used to mimic their accents (Boyle, 1977,9). He tells of his time going around from a young age stealing with his friends from other peoples unwanted possessions, something that was seen by Boyle as not criminal activity just the done thing. Watching the older men come out the pubs at night time drunk and engaging in violent behaviour (fighting) was one of the activities Boyle and his peers used to do, preferably on weekends. (Boyle, 1977:15). Although when read ing the book Boyle’s childish endeavours seems rather inline with the norm that boys will be boys and get up to mischief, it seems that this is where Boyles personality developed. The fact that he was out late watching the fighting outside pubs at the age of 5-6 suggests that his violent behaviour in his adult life could have derived from this. Thus, the significant aspects of this are that Boyle was out at a very late time for a young boy, which suggests that there was a significant lack of supervision by his parents. This is one of the reasons for Social Learning theory’s explanations as to why some delinquent behaviour takes place, and is one of lack of supervision or poor child rearing can lead to aggression (something that Boyle implied he was eventually an expert in) (Newburn, 2007:165) Boyle tells us from the start that his Father dies when he is a young boy, this is significant because of the lack of parenting in his family regarding supervision but also because of his Father’s reputation of which Boyle states he was aware of, which is of a violent nature. It is evident that these activities from childhood and throughout his adolescence c ould be key in explaining his criminality. Behavioural learning theories has its origins in the work of Pavlov and Skinner and their experiments carried out on animals, with their conditioning with stimuli when confronted with different tasks (Burke, 2005:79). This had a profound impact on the perspective developed when considering criminality. Skinner argued from an operant conditioning perspective that a person must actively respond if they are to learn, whereas Cognitivists place the emphasis on mental rather than physical activity (Burke, 2005:85). Social Learning theory like the Rational Choice theory shares the same notion that behaviour can be reinforced by rewards and punishment however it emphasises that behaviour can learned by expectations that are learned by watching what happens to other people, in this sense individuals will make a choice as to what is learned and how (Burke, 2005:85). Tarde (1843-1904, cited in Burke, 2005) suggested that crime was simply a normal learned behaviour. He argued that criminals are primary normal people who by accident of birth are brought up in an atmosphere in which they learn crime as a way of life. This leads to my argument as rather than generalising everyone as just rational actors, Boyle was nurtured into crime from a young age. In this sense this takes into consideration that whilst this theory shares the same values regarding rationality it looks closer into why crime is committed in the first place. Albert Bandura had a major impact on Social Learning theory, especially with his demonstration of the ‘Bobo doll’ experiment. The basis of the theory is that the learned behaviour is a combination of the physical acts and how to perform them (skills) and the attitudes and mental understanding necessary to the behaviour (including social skills, morals and choice) (Williams, 2008:289). In this sense criminal behaviour can be learnt through practice, watching others or engaging in the environment (Williams, 2008:289). According to Williams the level of social skills, which the individuals have learnt, may be connected to the amount of crime they perform. Bandura (cited in Newburn, 2007:153) points out that Social Learning theory includes a consideration of motivation and the three types involved, these are; external reinforcement-from the environment, vicarious reinforcement-from observing others and self reinforcement-as a result of taking pleasure or pride from one’s own actions. According to Bandura (cited in Newburn, 2007:153) in this sense we are likely to be influenced by others especially if they are of a high status, which is referred to as models. It is arguable that Boyle learnt his violent behaviour from hearing stories about his Father to watching fighting outside the pubs, in this sense he idolised this behaviour. It is stated in the book that in the book Boyle’s peers stole some money on a particular occasion. Boyle states that he did not want any of the money when his friends were sharing it out. However, he did let them pay for him to get in the cinema. This aloud Boyle to receive the benefits of this cr iminal act, which arguably conditioned him for the future, as this moral decision did not last and before long Boyle was participating in more theft himself. This is a case of learned behaviour from his peers. This shows that not all models have to be of high status, but behaviour can be learned through delinquent peers and what is accepted within a group (Newburn, 2007:165). The Social Learning theory therefore, can be applied to how Boyle became more involved in criminal activity. According to Newburn (2007) Ron Akers and his study of crime, suggests that crime is a result of operant conditioning or imitation. Not only did Boyle involve himself in theft and violent activity at school, but also carried on through his adolescent life which lead him into Approved schools and Borstal. This is where Boyle states that he made a lot of ‘contacts’. He referred to these institutions as ‘University for crime’ (Boyle, 1977:73). This suggest that Boyle believed himself that mixing with people of a more higher criminal status played a significant part in extending his criminality. According to Jones (2006:415) ‘for persistent offenders, the periodic reinforcement of their values by other criminals has been sufficient to outweigh the inhibitory effects of punishment. It is clear that whilst covering only a small area of Psychological Positivism with an emphasis on Social Learning theory, it seems to be a good explanation to Boyles Criminality. What this theory fails to explain is to some extent the social deprivation that Boyle experienced. It does focus on some areas that the social circumstances had on Boyle’s personality, however it emphasises on modelling his personality from influence of his peers and role models. This does seem to be effective in explaining why Boyle became violent and engaged in theft, however it fails to explain why he was influenced in this way in the first place and illuminates the question as to why are people around him acting in this way? According to Howitt (2009) ‘suggesting that people learn their violent and criminal actions from others is a weak argument, unless violence and crime are entirely genetically transmitted then inevitably they must be learnt socially in some way’. In this sense according to Howitt (2009) ‘any explanation of violence and crime in terms of learning is not particularly helpful unless the conditions under which it is learnt can be specified. Violence and crime are not the exclusive means by which goals are achieved. A variety of tactics are involved in achieving goals – working rather than stealing to get a television set being a simple example. As work is a major form of modeled behavior, how can we explain why there is any crime at all if it is simply through social learning’? In this sense the Social Learning theory’s weak ability to explain under what circumstances criminal behavior will or will not be learnt means that it has limited explanatory power (Howitt, 2009:78). Due to official statistics on crime there is a common belief that poverty has a significant role to play in underlying offending (Jones, 2006:151). The work from Durkheim focused on how the organization of society can drive people into breaking its rules (Jones, 2006:157). Durkheim thought that some crime is normal in society and it would be impossible to imagine a society without crime (Jones, 2006:157). Derkheim’s concentration on ‘anomie’ and the sociological perspective of crime had a profound effect on the development of criminological theory as he realised that crime is a contemporary social construct rather than a set of universal values or the reflection of intrinsic ‘evils’ (Jones, 2006:161). This gave rise to Merton’s theory on strain. Derkheim saw ‘anomie’ as created by sudden changes in society, whereas Merton ‘anomie’ applies to disadvantages of the lower classes. This is the area I am going to concentrate on next in explaining Boyle’s criminality.

Google: Research Google’s Attempt to Buy Into Wireless Via the 700 Mhz Spectrum Auction.

Verdell ChesterTM-583 Case 4 – Google: Research Google’s attempt to buy into wireless via the 700 MHz Spectrum Auction. 1. Why  did Google making this move? Google’s Motivation to bid into the wireless marketplace through the use of the 700MHz Spectrum Auction was the opportunity to develop possibly a 50 state network â€Å"The FCC is auctioning 1,099 wireless licenses in the 700 MHz band, but the most attractive spectrum for many bidders is the â€Å"C-block† of 12 regional licenses that may be combined to create a 50-state network. (Reiter, 2008) This new product development would allow Google to become a cellular network operator. This market includes firms such as AT;amp;T and Verizon, Google would not only compete with these firms but also would have had the opportunity to network with other entities to develop some innovative new products. What do they hope to accomplish? The prospect of entering into the wireless market offers Google many potenti al growth and development practices as well as competencies. There are also many risks associated with this strategy, including the cost of building and maintaining a billion dollar network.One particular goal that may have been in mind with this decision is the growth of Google’s vast wireless software portfolio that includes Gmail, Maps, Docs, Calendar Sync and various other applications that can be downloaded to many phones. There may have been other reasons Google chose to take interest into the wireless market such as the ownership of Youtube and its developments in a new website and java beta application that allows people to view tens of millions of videos via cell phone. . How does Google’s support for Open Access fit into Google’s plans? Google supporting Open Access really makes this a popular decision. Many people are rooting for Google to bid on the 700MHz spectrum for reasons that it will allow for competitive pricing of many cellular internet featu res. Furthermore research shows that Google supports open access initiatives like a concept called network neutrality, this is a principle proposed for user access networks participating in the Internet.It advocates that no restrictions can be imposed by internet service providers and governments on content, sites, platforms, the kinds of equipment that may be attached, and the modes of communication. Google still supports this idea but has made moves in this direction like stated in their public policy blog â€Å"FACT: Google has been the leading corporate voice on the issue of network neutrality over the past five years. No other company is working as tirelessly for an open Internet. But given political realities, this particular issue has been intractable in Washington for several years now.At this time there are no enforceable protections – at the Federal Communications Commission or anywhere else – against even the worst forms of carrier discrimination against In ternet traffic. † (Whitt ;amp; Counsel, 2010) This bid would provide google the ability to offer the most openly accessible network. 3. It looks like Google wants to get into wireless; yet, wireless is not one of Google’s core competencies. What should Google do about this? Google is not known for developing a large wireless network, but they are known for its advertising capabilities.This opportunity can present Google the chance to gain this ability and further strengthen its advertising ability. Google should invest in this opportunity although it may currently not fall into its current competencies; Google has capabilities that can allow them to develop newer competencies through their current ones. By taking their ability to advertise and the ability to deliver new internet products they can develop a superior network that enhances their ability to advertise and present customers with vast channels of information.Another option is looking toward some of Google†™s partnerships and ownerships and collecting resources from their wide variety of talent to develop a team tasked with developing the new competencies needed to make the new business venture successful. Similar to Google spearheading the Open Handset Alliance’s Android mobile platform, this new venture will need to break boundaries and establish Google as a premiere wireless network. â€Å"This situation has crippled consumers' ability to use the Internet on their mobile devices, compared to how they use it on their PCs.Google executives say their aim is to bring the PC-style of Internet openness to the mobile world so that users have more choice in mobile services and applications, as well as price. † (Mills, 2007) Google has the opportunity to develop the competencies for emerging as a successful wireless network yet they have to take the risk of investing into this opportunity. Google has the customer support and the finances to go for it, and it doesn’t l ook like a bad choice.Bibliography:Mills, E. (2007, 11 30). Cnet news. Retrieved 12 5, 2010, from Google versus the Telcoms: http://news. cnet. com/Google-versus-the-telecoms/2100-1039_3-6220909. html Reiter, A. (2008, 2 5).Internet Evolution. Retrieved 12 5, 2010, from Internet Evolution: http://www. internetevolution. com/author. asp? section_id=526;amp;doc_id=144810 Whitt, R. , ;amp; Counsel, W. T. (2010, 8 12).Google Public Policy Blog. Retrieved 12 5, 2010, from Google Public Policy Blog: http://googlepublicpolicy. blogspot. com/search/label/Net%20Neutrality